Key Evidence

Research on women’s mobility constraints demonstrates that differences between men’s and women’s freedom of movement has a direct influence on their ability to engage in economic and financial activities. Freedom of movement constraints begin in the household, where they are enforced, are reflected in how women are able to interact with the financial system, and are further reinforced by policies and regulations that fail to address mobility constraints. 

Women’s mobility is shaped by overlapping household and community constraints, including restrictive gender norms, care responsibilities, safety concerns, and limits on independent movement. Together, these constraints determine whether women can access opportunities, services, and networks, making mobility a core dimension of agency and a foundational driver of broader economic and financial exclusion. 

• Gender norms are often invisible but deeply influential, shaping what is considered acceptable behavior for women and men. These norms govern everyday choices and agency - defining where women can go, how they can participate in public life, and the conditions under which they can exercise freedom of movement. Because they are embedded in social expectations, institutions, and relationships, norms can feel natural or fixed rather than imposed. At the same time, they are highly “sticky”: change is typically slow, uneven, and prone to stalling or reversal, particularly when shifts begin to challenge existing power structures. (ALIGN Platform 2020)
• Women’s mobility is not simply about movement, but a measurable dimension of empowerment shaped by norms, safety, and care responsibilities. Women tend to travel less, make shorter and more constrained trips, and rely more on walking or informal transport - patterns that reflect limited access to opportunities rather than preference. Mobility is also closely tied to economic participation: restrictions on when and where women can travel directly limit their ability to work, access services, and engage in income-generating activities. Importantly, these constraints are often normalized, making them less visible in both data and policy design. (EMERGE 2020)
• In Pakistan, nearly one-third of women report needing permission to work, reflecting restrictions on their ability to both leave the home and earn money independently. Women with mobility autonomy demonstrate an 18 percentage-point higher awareness of market conditions, linking freedom of movement to economic exposure and participation and is especially detrimental to women’s entrepreneurship. (World Bank 2024)
• Survey data from Tanzania shows that 93% of respondents believe women should seek permission before working or traveling, and 87% believe women require consent before visiting family. Such norms constrain women’s independent movement and limit exposure to employment, markets, and financial services.  needs to get consent before visiting her own family. (Africa UN Women, 2024)

Financial systems still rely on physical interaction points (agents, cash points, onboarding locations). Women face mobility related barriers to reach these points. Even the rise of digital financial services has not eliminated the need for movement. As a result, mobility constraints lower access, usage, and engagement. 

• Agent networks are a primary access point for financial services, but gender dynamics shape who can use them and how. Women face barriers interacting with agents due to mobility constraints, norms, and safety concerns, particularly in male-dominated environments. Bringing services closer (e.g., local agents, female agents) reduces reliance on travel and increases usage. (CGAP 2023)
• Safety concerns extend into digital access, shaping when and how women use mobile phones and related services. Women may avoid traveling to purchase, repair, or use devices - or limit usage in public - due to fear of theft, harassment, or social scrutiny, reinforcing broader mobility constraints even within digital systems. (GSMA 2025)

Even when women are able to move beyond the household, they must navigate infrastructure and service environments that are not designed with their needs in mind. Unsafe public spaces and transport systems expose women to harassment and violence, shaping when, where, and whether they travel. Despite this, financial inclusion efforts rarely account for mobility and safety as core constraints.

• Transport systems and public infrastructure are typically designed around male mobility patterns, overlooking women’s travel constraints, trip chaining, and safety needs. As a result, women face structural barriers to accessing services and economic opportunities, even where infrastructure exists. (World Bank)
• Financial systems often assume users can move freely and independently, in part because women’s constraints are insufficiently captured in data and therefore remain underrepresented in system design and policy priorities. Evidence shows that gender norms - including restrictions on mobility - shape access to opportunities and financial services, but these norms are difficult to measure and often treated as external to financial systems rather than integral to them. At the same time, cross-country analysis shows that policy, infrastructure, and social norms are the strongest drivers of women’s financial inclusion, yet mobility (e.g., freedom of movement) is rarely isolated or directly addressed within financial inclusion policy frameworks. (CFI 2021; WWB 2021)